The COVID-19 Crisis

Resources: Seafaring and COVID-19

Anagnostopoulos, L., Vasileiadis, S., Kourentis, L., Bogogiannidou, Z., Voulgaridi, I., Nichols, G., Kalala, F., Speletas, M., Hadjichristodoulou, C., Mouchtouri, V. A., the EU HEALTHY SAILING project, Amditis, A., Athanasiadis, S., Bansaghi, S. J., Bygvraa, D. A., Chatzimichelakis, S., D’Souza, R., Dionysiou, D., Guerrero-Vadillo, M., … Zagkas, V. (2025). Scoping review of infectious disease prevention, mitigation and management in passenger ships and at ports: Mapping the literature to develop comprehensive and effective public health measures. Tropical Medicine and Health, 53(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-025-00681-0
APEC Transportation Working Group. (2024). Study on the maritime transport sector in the COVID-19 era: Challenges, opportunities, and way forward. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. https://www.apec.org/docs/default-source/publications/2024/6/224_tpt_study-on-the-maritime-transport-sector-in-the-covid-19-era.pdf
Borovnik, M. (2022). Seafarers: The force that moves the global economy. In K. Peters, J. Anderson, A. Davies, & P. Steinberg, The Routledge Handbook of Ocean Space (1st ed., pp. 148–160). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315111643-15
Brooks, S. K., & Greenberg, N. (2022). Mental health and wellbeing of seafaring personnel during COVID-19: Scoping review. Journal of Occupational Health, 64(1), e12361. https://doi.org/10.1002/1348-9585.12361
Calderón Peralvo, F., Cazorla Vanegas, P., & Avila-Ordóñez, E. (2022). A systematic review of COVID-19 transport policies and mitigation strategies around the globe. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 15, 100653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2022.100653
Carrera-Arce, M., Baumler, R., & Hollander, J. (2023). A systematic review of assessment methods for seafarers’ mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60, 00469580231212218. https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231212218
Chomariyah, C. (2025). Lessons learned from the IMO regulations to manage the COVID-19 pandemic: Outbreak on board ships and states practice. In S. Al Fatih, H. Tegnan, M. H. Bin Md Said, N. R. Yunus, A. Saeed, F. J. Fernhout, T. J. Gunawan, M. Najih, J. Zaidi Hassim, D. G. Sudika Mangku, H. Bachtiar, F. Wiryani, H. Juwana, S. Zulhuda, & M. Fauzan (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Law Reform (5th Inclar 2024) (Vol. 870, pp. 198–206). Atlantis Press SARL. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-362-7_29
Chua, J. Y., Foo, R., Tan, K. H., & Yuen, K. F. (2022). Maritime resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic: Impacts and solutions. Continuity & Resilience Review, 4(1), 124–143. https://doi.org/10.1108/CRR-09-2021-0031
Dewan, M. H., Godina, R., Chowdhury, M. R. K., Noor, C. W. M., Wan Nik, W. M. N., & Man, M. (2023). Immersive and non-immersive simulators for the education and training in maritime domain—A review. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 11(1), 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11010147
Jung, D., & Beckman, R. (2022). Merchant shipping during global health pandemics: A review of international regulations. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 37(1), 5–30. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718085-bja10084
Kordsmeyer, A.-C., Mojtahedzadeh, N., Heidrich, J., Militzer, K., Von Münster, T., Belz, L., Jensen, H.-J., Bakir, S., Henning, E., Heuser, J., Klein, A., Sproessel, N., Ekkernkamp, A., Ehlers, L., De Boer, J., Kleine-Kampmann, S., Dirksen-Fischer, M., Plenge-Bönig, A., Harth, V., & Oldenburg, M. (2021). Systematic review on outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 on cruise, navy and cargo ships. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(10), 5195. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105195
Lucas, D., Stannard, S., Shaw, N., Verbist, R., Walker, K., & Zuidema, J. (2024). Vaccinating international seafarers during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Lancet Global Health, 12(1), e166–e169. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(23)00486-2
Mulder, T., & Klein, N. (2024). WHO at sea: Maritime dimensions of the proposed pandemic treaty and changes to the International Health Regulations 2005. Marine Policy, 159, 105918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105918
Neumann, J. A., Zimmermann, J., Frese, M., Dirksen-Fischer, M., Kleine-Kampmann, S., Harth, V., & Heidrich, J. (2025). Infectious diseases on passenger ships: Port preparedness and response – A narrative systematic review. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease, 67, 102886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2025.102886
Nguyen, L. C., Tran, D. L. A., Akbari, M., & Thai, V. V. (2025). Examining the typology of global pandemic impacts on maritime operations and management. Case Studies on Transport Policy, 22, 101580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cstp.2025.101580
Probyn, E. (2022). UNCLOS as a geopolitical chokepoint: Locked down, locked in, locked out. In I. Braverman, Laws of the Sea (1st ed., pp. 184–201). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003205173-9
Şenbursa, N. (2024). Seafarers’ wellbeing on board: A scoping review. Transactions on Maritime Science, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.7225/toms.v13.n01.w04
Tsoulfas, G. T. (2025). Port resilience: A systematic literature review. Maritime Economics & Logistics. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41278-025-00326-3
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). (2020). Review of maritime transport 2020. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/rmt2020_en.pdf
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). (2021). Review of maritime transport 2021. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/rmt2021_en_0.pdf
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). (2023). Review of maritime transport 2023: Towards a green and just transition. https://digitallibrary.in.one.un.org/TempPdfFiles/8392_1.pdf
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). (2024). Review of maritime transport 2024: Navigating maritime chokepoints. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/rmt2024_en.pdf
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). (2025). Review of maritime transport 2025: Staying the course in turbulent waters. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/rmt2025_en.pdf
Vairavan, C. (2022). An overview of the impact of the pandemic on seafarers’ mental and physical health. Journal of Maritime Research, 19(1), 36–39. https://www.jmr.unican.es/jmr/en/article/view/693/722
Vanelslander, T. (2023). Short-run impacts of COVID-19 on the maritime and port sector: Measures and recommended policies. In Transportation Amid Pandemics (pp. 153–168). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-99770-6.00003-X
Yazir, D., Şahin, B., Yip, T. L., & Tseng, P.-H. (2020). Effects of COVID-19 on maritime industry: A review. International Maritime Health, 71(4), 253–264. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2020.0044

International Responses, Guidelines, and Regulations

Devereux, H., & Wadsworth, E. (2022). Forgotten keyworkers: The experiences of British seafarers during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Economic and Labour Relations Review, 33(2), 272–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/10353046221079136
Doumbia-Henry, C. (2020). Shipping and COVID-19: Protecting seafarers as frontline workers. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 19(3), 279–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-020-00217-9
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS), & International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF). (2020). Joint ICS and ITF statement to G20 leaders and ministers on facilitating essential movement of seafarers and marine personnel (C/ES.32/4/3). https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/joint-ics-and-itf-statement-to-g20-leaders-and-ministers-on-facilitating-essential.pdf
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2025). Fifth meeting of the Special Tripartite Committee established under Article XIII of the Maritime Labour Convention, 2006, as amended: Resolution on recognizing seafarers as key workers (STCMLC/2025/Resolution). https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/2025-04/STCMLC-2025-Adopted%20amendments-EN_0.pdf
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2020, December). UN General Assembly Resolution calls for seafarer key worker designation and implementation of crew change protocols; IMO Secretary-General urges priority vaccination. https://www.imo.org/en/mediacentre/pressbriefings/pages/44-seafarers-unga-resolution.aspx
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2022). Coronavirus (COVID-19)—Designation of seafarers as key workers: Circular Letter No.4204/Add.35/Rev.12. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Documents/COVID%20CL%204204%20adds/CL.4204-Add.35-Rev.12-en.pdf
Zarocostas, J. (2020). UN leaders call for key worker recognition for seafarers. The Lancet, 396(10265), 1792. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32582-4

Amendments of 2022 to the Maritime Labour Convention, 2006. (2022, June 6). International Labour Conference. https://www.mardep.gov.hk/filemanager/en/share/aboutus/pdf/sab/sabp2_23a.pdf
Committee of Experts of the Application of Conventions and Recommendations (CEACR). (2020). General observation on matters arising from the application of the Maritime Labour Convention, 2006, as amended (MLC, 2006) during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Labour Organization (ILO). https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40ed_norm/%40normes/documents/publication/wcms_764384.pdf
Daniş, M. (2023). Seafarers’ welfare under the Maritime Labour Convention of 2006. In N. Şenbursa (Ed.), Maritime wellbeing (pp. 247–262). Nova Science Publishers, Inc. https://doi.org/10.52305/HTXI6242
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2025). Guidelines on the application of the ILO Maritime Labour Convention (5th ed.). International Chamber of Shipping Publications. https://www.ics-shipping.org/publications/guidelines-on-the-application-of-the-ilo-maritime-labour-convention-fifth-edition/
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2024, July 4). New important set of amendments to the MLC, 2006 will enter into force on 23 December 2024. https://www.ilo.org/resource/news/new-important-set-amendments-mlc-2006-will-enter-force-23-december-2024
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2025). Amendments to the Code of the Maritime Labour Convention, 2006, as amended (MLC, 2006): (ILC.113/Instruments). https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/2025-06/ILC113-Instruments-%5BRELMEETINGS-250605-001%5D-Web-EN.pdf
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2025). Fifth meeting of the Special Tripartite Committee established under Article XIII of the Maritime Labour Convention, 2006, as amended: Resolution on recognizing seafarers as key workers (STCMLC/2025/Resolution). https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/2025-04/STCMLC-2025-Adopted%20amendments-EN_0.pdf
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2025). Final report of the fifth meeting of the Special Tripartite Committee established under Article XIII of the Maritime Labour Convention, 2006, as amended (STCMLC/2025). https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/2025-06/STCMLC-2025-%5BNORMES-250509-001%5D-Web-EN.pdf
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2025). MLC, 2006: What it is and what it does. https://www.ilo.org/international-labour-standards/maritime-labour-convention-2006-0/mlc-2006-what-it-and-what-it-does
Lielbarde, S. (2024). Seafarers’ security measures under the MLC 2006. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-60299-3
Maritime Labour Convention (MLC). (2006). International Labour Organization (ILO). https://www.ilo.org/media/269841/download
Maritime Labour Convention (MLC), 2006, as amended. (2024). International Labour Organization (ILO). https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/NORMES_MLC%20Amendments-EN_2022_Web_1.pdf
Shan, D., Ochs, C., & MacKenzie, E. G. (2025). New amendments to the Maritime Labour Convention, 2006: Linkages to pandemic lessons. Ocean Yearbook Online, 39(1), 385–421. https://doi.org/10.1163/22116001-03901017
Sotirios, K. (2021). The effectiveness of M.L.C. 2006 as a protective mechanism for seafarers in the Covid-19 era [Master’s dissertation, University of Piraeus]. https://dione.lib.unipi.gr/xmlui/handle/unipi/13725
Special Tripartite Committee of the Maritime Labour Convention. (2021). Resolution concerning the implementation and practical application of the MLC, 2006 during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Labour Organization (ILO). https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@normes/documents/genericdocument/wcms_782881.pdf
Special Tripartite Committee of the Maritime Labour Convention. (2022). Statement of the Officers of the Special Tripartite Committee: The continuing negative impact of the pandemic on seafarers’ rights. International Labour Organization (ILO). https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40ed_norm/%40normes/documents/statement/wcms_836896.pdf
Zhao, L., Zhang, P., Zhao, M., & He, G. (2023). From Marx to Market: A legal and empirical analysis of the maritime labour convention in China. Asia Pacific Law Review, 31(2), 329–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/10192557.2023.2194755

Attard, F. G. (2021). Limitations on the duty to render assistance at sea under international law in the COVID-19 era. ASCOMARE Yearbook on the Law of the Sea, 1, 45–94. https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/97017
Boviatsis, M. (2022). Legal assessment of BIMCO’s infectious or contagious diseases (IOCD) clauses for voyage and time charter parties. Marine Policy, 144, 105206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105206
Boviatsis, M., & Daniil, G. (2022). Legal analysis of impact of revised BIMCO clauses on crew health and safety during COVID-19 era. Transactions on Maritime Science, 11(1), 270–277. https://doi.org/10.7225/toms.v11.n01.020
Carballo Piñeiro, L. & Mejia Jr M. Q. (Eds.). (2024). The Elgar Companion to the law and practice of the International Maritime Organization. Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781802206883
Egbe, T. T. (2024). Navigating post-COVID-19 realities. In A. E. Arimoro, E. M. Igbokwe, & T. T. Egbe (Eds.), Law and sustainable development after COVID-19 (1st ed., pp. 196–214). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003453499-13
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2020). Coronavirus (COVID-19): Guidance for ensuring a safe shipboard interface between ship and shore-based personnel. International Chamber of Shipping. https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/COVID-19-Guidance-for-Ensuring-a-Safe-Shipboard-Interface-Between-Ship-and-Shore-Based-Personnel.pdf
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2020). ICS overview of the impact of COVID-19 on the shipping industry and summary of containment and mitigation measures. https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ics-submission-to-european-commission-concerning-the-impact-of-covid-19.pdf
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2020, March 19). Joint Open Letter to United Nations agencies from the global maritime transport industry. https://www.ics-shipping.org/press-release/joint-open-letter-to-united-nations-agencies-from-the-global-maritime-transport-industry/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2020). Responding to the challenges of COVID-19. https://www.ics-shipping.org/current-issue/responding-to-the-challenges-of-covid-19/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2021, March 19). COVID-19: A year on. https://www.ics-shipping.org/news-item/covid-19-a-year-on/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2022). Coronavirus (COVID-19): Guidance for ship operators for the protection of the health of seafarers. https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Coronavirus-COVID-19-Guidance-for-Ship-Operators-for-the-Protection-of-the-Health-of-Seafarers-Fifth-Edition.pdf
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2022). Faith and burial for seafarers. https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Faith-and-Burial-for-Seafarers.pdf
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2025). COVID-19. https://www.ics-shipping.org/supporting-shipping/covid/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2025). ICS is the global trade association for shipowners and operators. https://www.ics-shipping.org/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2025, May 30). Guy Platten and Thomas Kazakos: Working together for a better future. https://www.ics-shipping.org/news-item/guy-platten-and-thomas-kazakos-working-together-for-a-better-future/
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2020). ILO sectoral brief: COVID-19 and maritime shipping & fishing. https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40ed_dialogue/%40sector/documents/briefingnote/wcms_742026.pdf
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2020). Resolution concerning maritime labour issues and the COVID-19 pandemic (adopted on 8 December 2020). https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@relconf/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_760649.pdf
International Labour Organization (ILO), World Health Organization (WHO), International Maritime Organization, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), International Chamber of Shipping (ICS), International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF), International Air Transport Association (IATA), & World Road Transport Organisation (IRU). (2023, January 27). Recommendations—Joint Action Group to review the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the world’s transport workers and the global supply chain (JAG-TSC). International Labour Organization. https://www.ilo.org/publications/recommendations-joint-action-group-review-impact-covid-19-pandemic-worlds
International Labour Standards Department (NORMES), & Sectoral Policies Department (SECTOR). (2021). Information note on maritime labour issues and coronavirus (COVID-19). International Labour Organization (ILO). https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40ed_norm/%40normes/documents/genericdocument/wcms_741024.pdf
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2021, December 20). Addressing seafarers’ challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/pages/A32Outcome.aspx
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2021, February 16). The World Maritime theme for 2021 is dedicated to seafarers, highlighting their central role in the future of shipping. https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/pages/IMO-launches-a-year-of-action-for-seafarers.aspx
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2022). Advice via Circular Letter for IMO Member States, seafarers and shipping. https://www.imo.org/en/mediacentre/hottopics/pages/c19cls.aspx
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2020). Coronavirus (COVID 19) – COVID-19 related guidelines for ensuring a safe shipboard interface between ship and shore-based personnel: Circular Letter No.4204/Add.16 (Circular Letter No.4204/Add.16). https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Documents/COVID%20CL%204204%20adds/Circular%20Letter%20No.4204-Add.16%20-%20Coronavirus%20(Covid%2019)%20-%20Covid-19%20Related%20Guidelines%20For%20Ensuring%20A%20Safe%20Shipboard.pdf
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2022, May). Facilitation Committee (FAL 46), 9 to 13 May 2022. https://www.imo.org/en/mediacentre/meetingsummaries/pages/fal-46th-session.aspx
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2026). Frequently asked questions about how COVID-19 is impacting seafarers. https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/FAQ-on-crew-changes-and-repatriation-of-seafarers.aspx
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2023, February 10). Learning the lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.imo.org/en/mediacentre/pressbriefings/pages/learning-the-lessons-from-the-covid-19-pandemic.aspx
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (n.d.). Seafarer Crisis Action Team: Case studies. Retrieved November 18, 2025, from https://www.imo.org/en/mediacentre/hottopics/pages/scat.aspx
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2023). Table overview: List of Circular Letters with COVID-19 related notifications received from Member States and Associate Members (updated 20 January 2023). https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Documents/COVID-19%20Member%20States%20Communications/Notifications%20related%20to%20COVID-19%20received%20from%20Member%20States%2020%20January%202023.pdf
International Maritime Organization (IMO), & International Labour Organization (ILO). (2021). Coronavirus (COVID-19) – Joint IMO/ILO statement on upholding medical assistance obligations to seafarers and accelerating seafarer vaccination programmes: Circular Letter No.4204/Add.42. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/PublishingImages/Pages/medicalassistance/Circular%20Letter%20No.4204-Add.42%20-%20Coronavirus%20(Covid-19)%20-%20Joint%20ImoIlo%20Statement%20On%20UpholdingMedical%20Assistance%20Obligations…%20(Secretariat).pdf
International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF) Maritime Safety Committee. (2020). Beyond the limit: How Covid-19 corner-cutting places too much risk in the international shipping system. https://www.itfglobal.org/sites/default/files/node/news/files/ITF%20MSC%20Report%20September%202020_Beyond_the_limit_v8.pdf
JAG-TSC. (2022, March 28). Joint Action Group to review the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the world’s transport workers and the global supply chain (JAG-TSC) [Informal report]. International Labour Organization (ILO). https://www.ilo.org/media/246041/download
Lim, K. (2020, April 20). Personal message from IMO Secretary-General Kitack Lim to seafarers [Letter]. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Documents/Covid%20SG%20messages/17%204%202020%20IMO%20SEC-GEN%20-%20Personal%20message%20from%20IMO%20Secretary%20Kitack%20Lim%20to%20seafarers.pdf
Lim, K. (2020, June 22). Seafarers need recognition and support from governments: IMO Chief. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/seafarers-need-recognition-and-support-from-governments-imo-chief-11592847895
Klein, N. (2020). International law perspectives on cruise ships and Covid-19. Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies, 11(2), 282–294. https://doi.org/10.1163/18781527-bja10003
Li Faqiang, & Abliakimova, E. (2020). Safe ports: Law, theory, practice under conditions of the COVID-19 pandemic. Lex Portus, 4. https://doi.org/10.26886/2524-101X.4.2020.1
Mossop, J. (2021). Law of the sea and the pandemic—Humanitarian principles under siege? The Australian Year Book of International Law Online, 39(1), 78–90. https://doi.org/10.1163/26660229-03901007
Mulder, T., & Klein, N. (2024). WHO at sea: Maritime dimensions of the proposed pandemic treaty and changes to the International Health Regulations 2005. Marine Policy, 159, 105918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105918
Sirimanne, S. N. (2021). Strengthening international response and cooperation to address the seafarer crisis and keep global supply chains open during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic (Policy Brief No. 91). UN Trade & Development. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/presspb2021d9_en.pdf
Stannard, S. (2020). COVID-19 in the maritime setting: The challenges, regulations and the international response. International Maritime Health, 71(2), 85–90. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2020.0016
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). (2020). COVID-19 and maritime transport: Impact and responses (UNCTAD/DTL/TLB/INF/2020/1). https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/dtltlbinf2020d1_en.pdf
United Nations General Assembly (UNGA). (2020). International cooperation to address challenges faced by seafarers as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic to support global supply chains: Resolution 75/7. https://docs.un.org/en/A/75/L.37
United Nations Regional Centre for Preventive Diplomacy for Central Asia (UNRCCA). (2020, September 24). Secretary-General’s message on World Maritime Day. https://unrcca.unmissions.org/secretary-general%E2%80%99s-message-world-maritime-day
World Health Organization (WHO), International Maritime Organization (IMO), & International Labour Organization (ILO). (2020). A Joint Statement on medical certificates of seafarers, ship sanitation certificates and medical care of seafarers in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/2020-04-22-ilo-who-imo-joint-statement-on-medical-certificates-of-seafarers-ship-sanitation-certificates-22-april-sg-(003).pdf?sfvrsn=6afdd464_2
World Maritime University (WMU). (2020, June 3). COVID-19 and shipping: Maritime law and policy highlights—WMU webinar. https://www.wmu.se/news/covid-19-shipping-maritime-law-policy-highlights-wmu-webinar

Akyurek, E., & Bolat, P. (2020). Port state control at European Union under pandemic outbreak. European Transport Research Review, 12(1), 66. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12544-020-00460-4
Brunt, P. (2023). Memorandum: Maritime allocation – Future MIQ settings (D23/21893). Maritime New Zealand. https://www.mlaanz.org/uploads/1/3/9/4/139416176/mnz_advice_on_a_maritime_allocation_future_miq_settings_final_may_10.pdf
Cetin, I. B., & Maier, D. (2021, October 26). The effect of COVID-19 on coastal shipping in Mediterranean and Black Sea. Proceedings of the International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. https://aga21.aast.edu/templates/frontend/aga21/ltr/templates/AGA21-Conference-Proceedings.pdf
Chapman, B. (2026). Recent U.S. government and international government and commercial literature on maritime shipping. Journal of Business & Finance Librarianship, 1–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/08963568.2026.2679330
Gabedava, G., & Khvedelidze, P. (2021, October 26). Impact of COVID19 on ports and maritime transport (Georgian ports response to COVID19). Proceedings of the International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. https://aga21.aast.edu/templates/frontend/aga21/ltr/templates/AGA21-Conference-Proceedings.pdf
Galani, S., & Judkins, K. (2021, November 23). Discriminating against your own nationals: The peculiar case of New Zealand seafarers. EJIL:Talk! https://www.ejiltalk.org/discriminating-against-%CF%85our-own-nationals-the-peculiar-case-of-new-zealand-seafarers/
Hintjens, J., & Vanelslander, T. (2025). Effects of COVID-19 on the throughput of seaports in the Hamburg-Le Havre range. In J. Zhang, J. Ying, & Y. Hayashi (Eds.), Research handbook on transport and COVID-19 (pp. 274–308). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781802208016.00021
Lin, M. S.-M., & Sarza, N. A. (2024). Identifying critical challenges and government’s responses for Filipino seafarers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Maritime Business Review, 9(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1108/MABR-02-2023-0019
Manch, K. (2020). MNZ Circular Letter No. 4248 to IMO (No. 4248). Maritime New Zealand. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Documents/Circular%20Letter%20No.4248-Add.1%20New%20Zealand.pdf
Mulić, R., & Russo, A. (2021, October 26). The COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on the maritime sector in Croatia and the world. Proceedings of the International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. https://aga21.aast.edu/templates/frontend/aga21/ltr/templates/AGA21-Conference-Proceedings.pdf
Oyenuga, A. (2021). Perspectives on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the global and African maritime transport sectors, and the potential implications for Africa’s maritime governance. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 20(2), 215–245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-021-00233-3
Peričin, L., Vučetić, Š., Barić, M., & Milin, S. (2024). Port state control inspections during the COVID pandemic – Case study: Republic of Croatia. Transactions on Maritime Science, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.7225/toms.v13.n02.w11
Pittard, M. J., & Ewing, K. D. (2024). ‘Fire and rehire’: Four lessons from Australia. Industrial Law Journal, 53(3), 331–369. https://doi.org/10.1093/indlaw/dwae023
Sackey, A. D., Tchouangeup, B., Lomotey, B., Lamptey, B. L., Lee, R. O.-D., Sackey, A. D., Segbefia, J. E., Teye, A. A., Quarcoo, R. K., Bansah, J., Ewedji, C., & Wood, E. E. (2021). Outlining the challenges of COVID-19 pandemic on Africa’s maritime industry: The case of marine and seafaring professionals [In Review]. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-978145/v1
Shan, D., & Yadav, O. P. (2024). The impact of COVID-19 on Arctic shipping: An area-based public/occupational health perspective. In A. Chircop, F. Goerlandt, R. Pelot, & C. Aporta (Eds.), Area-based management of shipping (pp. 315–332). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-60053-1_13
Wang, X., Liu, Z., Yan, R., Wang, H., & Zhang, M. (2022). Quantitative analysis of the impact of COVID-19 on ship visiting behaviors to ports- A framework and a case study. Ocean & Coastal Management, 230, 106377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2022.106377

Seafarers’ Health and Wellbeing

Adebisi, Y. A., Oladunjoye, I. O., Tajudeen, Y. A., & Lucero-Prisno Iii, D. E. (2021). Self-medication with antibiotics among seafarers: A public health issue. International Maritime Health, 72(3), 241–242. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2021.0045
Amirah, A., Suharto, T., Yetti, E., Sari, A., & Mayridian, R. (2021). The influence of Covid-19 preparedness through health care implementation on ship crew. Media Kesehatan Masyarakat Indonesia, 17(4), 116–123. https://doi.org/10.30597/mkmi.v17i4.13167
Anagnostopoulos, L., Vasileiadis, S., Kourentis, L., Bogogiannidou, Z., Voulgaridi, I., Nichols, G., Kalala, F., Speletas, M., Hadjichristodoulou, C., Mouchtouri, V. A., the EU HEALTHY SAILING project, Amditis, A., Athanasiadis, S., Bansaghi, S. J., Bygvraa, D. A., Chatzimichelakis, S., D’Souza, R., Dionysiou, D., Guerrero-Vadillo, M., … Zagkas, V. (2025). Scoping review of infectious disease prevention, mitigation and management in passenger ships and at ports: Mapping the literature to develop comprehensive and effective public health measures. Tropical Medicine and Health, 53(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-025-00681-0
Arleiny, Soesatyo, Y., & Roesminingsih, E. (2021). Implementation of the International Chamber of Ship guidance for ship operators for the safety of the health of seafarers in the new normal age. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 750(1), 012021. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/750/1/012021
Battineni, G., Sagaro, G. G., Chintalapudi, N., Di Canio, M., & Amenta, F. (2021). Assessment of awareness and knowledge on novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic among seafarers. Healthcare, 9(2), 120. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9020120
Bodus-Olkowska, I., Garczynska, I., Lisaj, A., Maka, M., Dramski, M., Chronopoulos, A., Gregorič, T., Koivisto, H., De Melo Rodríguez, G., Ziarati, R., & Filipiak, K. (2024). Repository of data on epidemic situations on sea vessels. TransNav, the International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 18(1), 133–137. https://doi.org/10.12716/1001.18.01.12
Boviatsis, M. (2022). Legal assessment of BIMCO’s infectious or contagious diseases (IOCD) clauses for voyage and time charter parties. Marine Policy, 144, 105206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105206
Boviatsis, M., & Daniil, G. (2022). Legal analysis of impact of revised BIMCO clauses on crew health and safety during COVID-19 era. Transactions on Maritime Science, 11(1), 270–277. https://doi.org/10.7225/toms.v11.n01.020
Coxon, S. E., Hopley, T., & Gilpin, B. J. (2022). Exploring opportunities for sewage testing on cargo ships as a tool to screen seafarers for COVID-19. Journal of Hydrology (NZ), 61(1), 5–30. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27258214
Dai, Q., Hu, S., Yan, K., Chen, Z., Chen, B., Cai, T., Zhang, S., Zhang, J., & Zheng, J. (2020). Reflection on SARS-CoV-2 infection of container ship seafarers. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease, 36, 101787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101787
Dengler, D., Von Münster, T., Kordsmeyer, A.-C., Belz, L., Mojtahedzadeh, N., Heidrich, J., Hewelt, E., Dirksen-Fischer, M., Boldt, M., Harth, V., & Oldenburg, M. (2021). Prävention und Management von COVID-19-Ausbrüchen auf Handelsschiffen: Technische, organisatorische und persönliche Schutzmaßnahmen zur Risikominimierung in einem besonderen Arbeitsumfeld. Zentralblatt für Arbeitsmedizin, Arbeitsschutz und Ergonomie, 71(6), 296–304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40664-021-00440-y
Fanoy, E., Ummels, A. E., Schokkenbroek, V., Van Dijk, B., Wiegmans, S., Veenstra, T., Van Der Eijk, A. A., Sikkema, R. S., & De Raad, A. (2021). Outbreak of COVID-19 on an industrial ship. International Maritime Health, 72(2), 87–92. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2021.0016
Froholdt, L. L., & Grøn, S. (2022). The usefulness and practicality of the International Medical Guide for Ships. International Maritime Health, 73(4), 181–188. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2022.0032
Froholdt, L. L., & Rasmussen, H. B. (2025). Can health interventions float? A process evaluation of workplace health intervention on board a vessel in the North Sea. International Maritime Health, 76(3), 200–209. https://doi.org/10.5603/imh.102945
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic: Health protection of seafarers. https://www.ics-shipping.org/current-issue/the-covid-19-pandemic-health-protection-of-seafarers/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2022, July 8). Seafarer healthcare post-COVID-19. https://www.ics-shipping.org/news-item/seafarer-healthcare-post-covid-19/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2023, March 28). ICS publishes new landmark practical medical guide which can deliver a remarkable difference in seafarers’ and fishers’ lives on board vessels. https://www.ics-shipping.org/press-release/ics-publishes-new-landmark-practical-medical-guide-which-can-deliver-a-remarkable-difference-in-seafarers-and-fishers-lives-on-board-vessels/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2024). Global health emergency guide: Helping shipping companies and crew prepare, act and recover (1st ed.). International Chamber of Shipping Publications. https://www.ics-shipping.org/publications/global-health-emergency-guide-first-edition
Kasińska, J., & Jendryczka, V. (2022). Determinants of COVID-19 infections on sea-going ships and their socio-economic consequences for seafarers and shipowners in terms of modeling ship emergency procedures. Sustainability, 14(17), 10882. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710882
Kordsmeyer, A.-C., Mojtahedzadeh, N., Heidrich, J., Militzer, K., Von Münster, T., Belz, L., Jensen, H.-J., Bakir, S., Henning, E., Heuser, J., Klein, A., Sproessel, N., Ekkernkamp, A., Ehlers, L., De Boer, J., Kleine-Kampmann, S., Dirksen-Fischer, M., Plenge-Bönig, A., Harth, V., & Oldenburg, M. (2021). Systematic review on outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 on cruise, navy and cargo ships. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(10), 5195. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105195
Pougnet, R., Pougnet, L., Bleunven, P., Jezequel, E., Lucas, D., & Loddé, B. (2021). COVID-19: Rethinking seafarers’ temporality to improve healthcare and prevention practices? International Maritime Health, 72(1), 84–85. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2021.0015
Sagaro, G. G., Battineni, G., Chintalapudi, N., Di Canio, M., & Amenta, F. (2020). Telemedical assistance at sea in the time of COVID-19 pandemic. International Maritime Health, 71(4), 229–236. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2020.0041
Sossai, P., Uguccioni, S., Mela, G. S., DiCanio, M., & Amenta, F. (2020). Coronavirus variant COVID-19 pandemic: A report to seafarers. International Maritime Health, 71(3), 191–194. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2020.0034
Stannard, S. (2020). COVID-19 in the maritime setting: The challenges, regulations and the international response. International Maritime Health, 71(2), 85–90. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2020.0016
Timilsina, A., & Baygi, F. (2023). COVID-19 guidelines and its perceived effect on seafarers’ health and wellbeing: A qualitative study. PLOS ONE, 18(4), e0284155. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284155
Van Bockxmeer, J. J., & Ranwala, N. (2022). Seafarers on the shore: Issues raised by Australian doctors treating seafarers. Medical Journal of Australia, 217(7), 335–337. https://doi.org/10.5694/mja2.51706
World Health Organization (WHO). (2021). An implementation guide for the management of COVID-19 on board cargo ships and fishing vessels. https://iris.who.int/server/api/core/bitstreams/ce4a5038-74da-4ac0-b42b-7b7a70f2c3d3/content

Echebarria Fernández, J. (2022). Risks posed by the COVID-19 pandemic regarding the carriage of goods and passengers by sea: Considerations on seafarers’ rights and health protection. In A. Basu Bal, T. Rajput, G. Argüello, & D. Langlet (Eds.), Regulation of Risk (pp. 236–281). Brill | Nijhoff. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004518681_009
Human Rights at Sea. (2022). All at sea? Is the global maritime sector effective in business & human rights implementation? https://www.humanrightsatsea.org/sites/default/files/media-files/2022-10/HRAS_Business_Human_Rights_Review_All_at_Sea-October%202022-Unlocked.pdf
Human Rights at Sea. (2022b). Annual report 2021/22. https://www.humanrightsatsea.org/sites/default/files/media-files/2022-10/HRAS_ANNUAL_REPORT_YEAR_8_locked_0.pdf
Human Rights at Sea. (2023). Annual report 2022/23. https://www.humanrightsatsea.org/sites/default/files/media-files/2024-01/HRAS_Annual%20Report_Dec%2023_Final%20Compressed.pdf
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2024, March 21). Red Sea attacks join triple threat to global trade. https://www.ics-shipping.org/news-item/red-sea-attacks-join-triple-threat-to-global-trade/
International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF). (2025, June 27). Sustained, joint action needed to end seafarer “human rights crisis.” https://www.itfglobal.org/en/news/sustained-joint-action-needed-end-seafarer-human-rights-crisis
International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF). (2025, July 15). Seafarer abandonments cases surge by 30% in 2025. https://www.itfglobal.org/en/news/seafarer-abandonments-cases-surge-30-in-2025
International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF). (2026, March 31). ICS and ITF engage Gulf States on seafarer and shipping crisis in the Gulf. https://www.itfglobal.org/en/news/ics-and-itf-engage-gulf-states-seafarer-and-shipping-crisis-in-gulf
Kaptan, M., & Olgun Kaptan, B. (2023). The investigation of the effects of COVID-19 restrictions on seafarers. Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs, 15(1), 25–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/18366503.2021.1961360
Osler, D. (2025, June 10). Crews still getting raw deal on rest breaks, food and medical care. Lloyd’s List. https://www.lloydslist.com/LL1153801/Crews-still-getting-raw-deal-on-rest-breaks-food-and-medical-care
Paez, R. E. (2021). Stamping on seafarers’ rights during the COVID-19 pandemic. Human Rights at Sea. https://www.humanrightsatsea.org/sites/default/files/media-files/2021-12/HRAS_Stamping-on-Seafarers-Rights_REPORT_10DEC21_SP_0.pdf
Palma-Robles, M. A. (2022). Legal and policy issues concerning the plight of seafarers during COVID-19. In J. F. Bradford, J. Chan, S. Kaye, C. Schofield, & G. Till (Eds.), Maritime cooperation and security in the Indo-Pacific region: Essays in honour of Sam Bateman (pp. 403–425). Brill | Nijhoff. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004532847
Sabatira, F. (2026). Seafarers’ rights at sea: The legal framework of international protections for maritime workers. Journal of Maritime Research, 23(1), 449–455. https://www.jmr.unican.es/jmr/en/article/view/1275/1210
Schuler, M. (2026, March 16). UN shipping agency says 3,200 ships trapped west of Hormuz as emergency council meeting called. gCaptain. https://gcaptain.com/un-shipping-agency-says-3200-ships-trapped-west-of-hormuz-as-emergency-council-meeting-called/
Tang, L. (2022). Defending workers’ rights on social media: Chinese seafarers during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Industrial Relations Journal, 53(2), 110–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/irj.12357
Voudouris, I., & Berketis, N. G. (2024). The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on ship operations, ports, and the rights of seafarers. In V. Karagkouni (Ed.), The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on human rights: Collective research project (pp. 93–120). Logos Verlag Berlin. https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/89850
Wachenfeld, M., Kunigenas, K., Stephens, A., Fairbairn, F., House, F., & Rivera, A. (2021). Delivering on seafarers’ rights Code of Conduct: A seafarers’ rights and welfare Code of Conduct for shipowners, operators, charterers and cargo owners. IHRB; SSI; RAFTO. https://safety4sea.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Seafarers-rights-Code-of-Conduct-2021_10.pdf
Yu, Y., Lorenc, M., & Shao, Y. (2022). Legal challenges in protecting the rights of cruise ship crew at the post COVID-19 pandemic era. Sustainability, 14(16), 9875. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14169875

Abila, S. S., & Acejo, I. L. (2021). Mental health of Filipino seafarers and its implications for seafarers’ education. International Maritime Health, 72(3), 183–192. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2021.0035
Abila, S., & Malecosio, S. (2024). Filipino seafarers’ experiences and perceptions of psychosocial interventions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 33(1), 70–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/01171968241253351
Ali, S. N. M., Cioca, L.-I., Kayati, R. S., Saputra, J., Adam, M., Plesa, R., & Ibrahim, R. Z. A. R. (2023). A study of psychometric instruments and constructs of work-related stress among seafarers: A qualitative approach. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(4), 2866. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042866
Andriana, T. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic outbreak and the impact on the seafarers lives [Master’s dissertation, University of Piraeus]. https://dione.lib.unipi.gr/xmlui/handle/unipi/13035
Arleiny, Soesatyo, Y., & Roesminingsih, E. (2021). Implementation of the International Chamber of Ship guidance for ship operators for the safety of the health of seafarers in the new normal age. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 750(1), 012021. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/750/1/012021
Baygi, F., Blome, C., Smith, A., Khonsari, N. M., Agoushi, A., Maghoul, A., Esmaeili-Abdar, M., Gorabi, A. M., & Qorbani, M. (2022). Post-traumatic stress disorder and mental health assessment of seafarers working on ocean-going vessels during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 242. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12673-4
Baygi, F., Mohammadian Khonsari, N., Agoushi, A., Hassani Gelsefid, S., Mahdavi Gorabi, A., & Qorbani, M. (2021). Prevalence and associated factors of psychosocial distress among seafarers during COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 222. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03197-z
Bezhanovi, Z., Mikeladze, T., Rodinadze, S., Zarbazoia, K., & Abashidze, M. (2022, October 21). Identification and reduction of seafarers’ cognitive and behavioral fatigue impacts for effective MET policy development. Proceedings of the International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. https://archive.iamu-edu.org/download/aga-22-proceedings/?wpdmdl=9155&ind=1667894767213&refresh=bed261f7&filename=5_4-Identification-and-reduction-of-seafarers-cognitive-and-behavioral-fatigue-impacts-for-effective-MET-policy-development.pdf
Brooks, S. K., & Greenberg, N. (2022). Mental health and wellbeing of seafaring personnel during COVID-19: Scoping review. Journal of Occupational Health, 64(1), e12361. https://doi.org/10.1002/1348-9585.12361
Carol-Dekker, L. (2022). Prisoners at sea: The psychosocial effect that the Covid-19 pandemic had on seafarers. Journal of Maritime Research, 19(2), 65–71. https://www.jmr.unican.es/jmr/en/article/view/653
Carrera-Arce, M., Bartusevičienė, I., & Divari, P. (2022). Healthy workplace onboard: Insights gained from the COVID-19 impact on mental health and wellbeing of seafarers. Work, 73(1), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-210791
Carrera-Arce, M., Baumler, R., & Hollander, J. (2023). A systematic review of assessment methods for seafarers’ mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60, 00469580231212218. https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231212218
Carrera-Arce, M., Baumler, R., Bhatia, B. S., & Hollander, J. (2025). Seafarers’ voices during the COVID-19 crisis and beyond: When excessive workload and related impacts become a turning point to quit. Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/18366503.2025.2480951
Carrera-Arce, M., Baumler, R., Singh, H., & Hollander, J. (2025). COVID-19 crisis – Lasting effects on seafarers’ well-being and its potential impact on retention. INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 62, 1–15. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580251375264
Choi, J., Lim, S., & Lee, C. (2024). Comparative analysis of sustainable seafarers’ employment and welfare systems in South Korea and China: Contemporary issues and improvements. Sustainability, 16(19), 8512. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198512
Clonch, A. C., Monsey, L. M., & Baker, M. G. (2025). Occupational stressors among US maritime workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A content analysis by age and gender. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 67(10), 856–861. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000003457
De Beukelaer, C. (2021). COVID-19 at sea: ‘The world as you know it no longer exists.’ Cultural Studies, 35(2–3), 572–584. https://doi.org/10.1080/09502386.2021.1898020
Dybin, A. S., Menshikova, L. I., Poteryaev, A. E., Shapovalov, P. Yu., Yanborisov, S. P., & Tumilovich, O. A. (2022). Assessment of the impact of current COVID-19 infection on the quality of life in navy mariners. Health Care of the Russian Federation, 66(3), 213–220. https://doi.org/10.47470/0044-197X-2022-66-3-213-220
Erdem, A. T., & Tutar, H. (2022). Impact of COVID-19 anxiety on work stress in seafarers: The mediating role of COVID-19 burnout and intention to quit. International Maritime Health, 73(3), 133–142. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2022.0026
Graham, C. A. E., Wilson, D. D., & Doyley, D. M. (2023). The long-term treatment of seafarers: Creating a new normal. In N. Şenbursa (Ed.), Maritime wellbeing (pp. 41–60). Nova Science Publishers, Inc. https://doi.org/10.52305/HTXI6242
Hayes-Mejia, R., & Stafström, M. (2023). Psychosocial work environment and mental health among the global workforce of seafarers in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Public Health, 23(1), 2151. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-17035-2
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Jonglertmontree, W., Kaewboonchoo, O., Morioka, I., & Boonyamalik, P. (2023). Depressive symptoms among Thai male seafarers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 23(1), 475. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15305-7
Kaptan, M., & Olgun Kaptan, B. (2023). The investigation of the effects of COVID-19 restrictions on seafarers. Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs, 15(1), 25–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/18366503.2021.1961360
Le Gac, J. M., & Texier, S. (2022). Training in the detection of psychological distress on board ships through health simulation during the COVID-19 epidemic. International Maritime Health, 73(2), 89–94. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2022.0014
Lefkowitz, R. Y., & Slade, M. D. (2019). Seafarer mental health study. ITF Seafarers’ Trust & Yale University. https://www.seafarerstrust.org/sites/default/files/node/publications/files/ST_MentalHealthReport_Final_Digital-1.pdf
Lucas, D., Jego, C., Chresten Jensen, O., Loddé, B., Pougnet, R., Dewitte, J.-D., Sauvage, T., & Jegaden, D. (2021). Seafarers’ mental health: What we know and impact of COVID 19 pandemic; Santé mentale chez les gens de mer: Connaissances actuelles et impact de la pandémie COVID 19. Archives des Maladies Professionnelles et de l’Environnement, 82(6), 619–623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.admp.2021.05.001
Lucas, D., Jego, C., Jensen, O. C., Loddé, B., Pougnet, R., Dewitte, J.-D., Sauvage, T., & Jegaden, D. (2021). Seafarers’ mental health in the COVID-19 era: Lost at sea? International Maritime Health, 72(2), 138–141. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2021.0023
Luqman, A., & Zhang, Q. (2022). Explore the mechanism for seafarers to reconnect with work after post-pandemic psychological distress (PAPIST19): The moderating role of health-supporting climate. Ocean & Coastal Management, 223, 106153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2022.106153
Mellbye, A., & Carter, T. (2017). Seafarers’ depression and suicide. International Maritime Health, 68(2), 108–114. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2017.0020
Mitra, T. (2023). Linkage of job ranks and personality traits with augmented stress: A study on Indian marine engineers in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. International Maritime Health, 74(2), 112–121. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2023.0017
Mittal, M., Battineni, G., Goyal, L. M., Chhetri, B., Oberoi, S. V., Chintalapudi, N., & Amenta, F. (2020). Cloud-based framework to mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on seafarers’ mental health. International Maritime Health, 71(3), 213–214. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2020.0038
National Maritime Occupational Health and Safety Committee. (2018). Guidelines to shipping companies on mental health awareness. UK Chamber of Shipping; Nautilus International; RMT. https://maritimecyprus.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/mental_health_guidelines_-_2_-_full_document_-_2018.pdf
National Maritime Occupational Health and Safety Committee. (2024). Practical guidance for shipping companies on improving mental wellbeing. UK Chamber of Shipping; Nautilus International; RMT. https://www.ukchamberofshipping.com/sites/default/files/_Improving_Mental_Health_FINAL.pdf
Ogbodum, M. U., Ogunkola, I. O., Adetola, A. A., Befrits, A. E., Madu, G. O., & Lucero-Prisno Iii, D. E. (2022). Mental health of seafarers amidst pandemics. International Maritime Health, 73(4), 223–224. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2022.0037
Onakpojeruo, D., Jeong, B., & Park, C. (2023). Mental wellbeing; Human reliability assessment of seafarers during the COVID-19 era. Journal of International Maritime Safety, Environmental Affairs, and Shipping, 7(1), 2184604. https://doi.org/10.1080/25725084.2023.2184604
Ozabor, F., Efe, S. I., Kpang, M. B. T., & Obisesan, A. (2023). Social and economic wellbeing of seafarers across coastal Nigeria amidst Corona virus disease. Heliyon, 9(8), e18275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18275
Pauksztat, B., & Grech, M. R. (2022). Building social support: The impact of workgroup characteristics, the COVID-19 pandemic and informal interactions. Work, 72(4), 1175–1189. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-220020
Pauksztat, B., Andrei, D. M., & Grech, M. R. (2022). Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of seafarers: A comparison using matched samples. Safety Science, 146, 105542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105542
Pauksztat, B., Grech, M. R., & Kitada, M. (2022). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on seafarers’ mental health and chronic fatigue: Beneficial effects of onboard peer support, external support and Internet access. Marine Policy, 137, 104942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104942
Pauksztat, B., Grech, M., Kitada, M., & Jensen, R. B. (2020). Seafarers’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic: Report. World Maritime University. https://doi.org/10.21677/wmu20201213
Pesel, G., Canals, M. L., Sandrin, M., & Jensen, O. (2020). Wellbeing of a selection of seafarers in Eastern Adriatic Sea during the COVID-19 pandemic 2020. International Maritime Health, 71(3), 184–190. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2020.0033
Phi, N. V., Ye, K. D., Tsai, F. M., Hsieh, H. C., & Chen, S.-Y. (2024). Basic psychological needs satisfaction and well-being among seafarers: An investigation of interaction effects through the lens of self-determination theory. Journal of Marine Science and Technology, 32(3). https://doi.org/10.51400/2709-6998.2748
Qin, W., Li, L., Zhu, D., Ju, C., Bi, P., & Li, S. (2021). Prevalence and risk factors of depression symptoms among Chinese seafarers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 11(6), e048660. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048660
Rio Tinto. (2025, May 29). Supporting seafarers at sea and on land. Rio Tinto. https://www.riotinto.com/en/news/stories/supporting-seafarers-at-sea-and-on-land
Rojas Aldieri, H. A., Ochs, C., Valcour, J., Shea, J. M., Mulay, S., & Shan, D. (2026). Depression and anxiety among seafarers in Canada during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Maritime Health, 77(2), 126–136. https://doi.org/10.5603/imh.104606
Rojas Aldieri, H. A., Shea, J., Mulay, S., Valcour, J., & Shan, D. (2026). Navigating mental health needs at sea: Perspectives from the Canadian maritime community during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLOS Global Public Health, 6(5), e0006493. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0006493
Ruggunan, S., Leask, C., & Singh, S. (2023). A temperature reading of South African seafarer well-being during the Covid-19 pandemic. Cogent Social Sciences, 9(1), 2205218. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2205218
Sampson, H., Acejo, I., Ellis, N., & Turgo, N. (2025). The health and wellbeing of seafarers working on cargo ships in 2023-2024. Seafarers International Research Centre, Cardiff University. https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/178526/
Şenbursa, N. (2024). Seafarers’ wellbeing on board: A scoping review. Transactions on Maritime Science, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.7225/toms.v13.n01.w04
Shan, D. (2022). Occupational safety and health challenges for maritime key workers in the global COVID‐19 pandemic. International Labour Review, 161(2), 267–287. https://doi.org/10.1111/ilr.12220
Sivri, F., Uğurlu, Ö., Blanco-Davis, E., Şenbursa, N., & Wang, J. (2025). Mapping mental health of seafarers post-COVID-19: A Gaussian graphical model of depression, anxiety, and maritime working conditions. 62, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580251371386
Skiani, A. (2022). Well-being of Filipino seafarers working under Greek shipping companies [Master’s dissertation, University of Piraeus]. https://dione.lib.unipi.gr/xmlui/handle/unipi/14651
Slišković, A. (2020). Seafarers’ well-being in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative study. Work, 67(4), 799–809. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-203333
Tang, L. (2024). Moral mobilization in the digital space: Seafarers exercising agency during the pandemic. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 56(4), 1045–1060. https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518X231223620
Tang, L., Abila, S., Kitada, M., Malecosio, S., & Montes, K. K. (2022). Seafarers’ mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: An examination of current supportive measures and their perceived effectiveness. Marine Policy, 145, 105276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105276
Timilsina, A., & Baygi, F. (2023). COVID-19 guidelines and its perceived effect on seafarers’ health and wellbeing: A qualitative study. PLOS ONE, 18(4), e0284155. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284155
Toygar, A., & Yıldırım, U. (2023). Fear of COVID-19 in seafarers: Association with psychological distress. Journal of ETA Maritime Science, 11(3), 148–158. https://doi.org/10.4274/jems.2023.58966
Vairavan, C. (2022). An overview of the impact of the pandemic on seafarers’ mental and physical health. Journal of Maritime Research, 19(1), 36–39. https://www.jmr.unican.es/jmr/en/article/view/693/722
Vairavan, C., & Manigandan, K. (2024). An analysis of the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on seafarers’ mental health. Journal of Maritime Research, 21(2), 313–316. https://www.jmr.unican.es/jmr/en/article/view/891
Wong, C. P. (2023). Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the well-being of the stranded seafarers. Maritime Business Review, 8(2), 156–169. https://doi.org/10.1108/MABR-07-2021-0049
Yassin, A. H., Spector, J. T., Mease, L., Shumate, A., Hill, R., Lincoln, J. E., & Baker, M. G. (2022). Workplace determinants of depression, anxiety, and stress in U.S. mariners during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(24), 16628. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192416628
Youngchan, C. (2026, May 19). 569 Korean-flagged international vessels adopt high-speed internet with support from Seafarers’ Welfare Fund Foundation. The Asia Business Daily. https://www.asiae.co.kr/en/article/2026051909112224032
Zakariah, W. N. A., Ngah, N. S., Rahi, S., Kamalrulzaman, N. I., Albtoosh, Q. A. A., & Ngah, A. H. (2025). Unravelling seafarers’ fatigue post-pandemic: The role of job demand–resource theory from the perspective of Malaysian seafarers. Maritime Business Review, 10(2), 106–123. https://doi.org/10.1108/MABR-04-2024-0033
Zhao, Z., Tang, L., & Wu, Y. (2023). Fatigue during the COVID-19 pandemic: The experiences of Chinese seafarers. Mar Policy, 153, 105643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105643
Zhao, Z., Tang, L., Ma, Y., Wu, Y., Lin, S., Wu, Z., Zhou, Z., Wang, X., & Wang, X. (2023). Fatigue at sea during and after the COVID-19 pandemic: A comparative study of two matched samples of seafarers. Marine Policy, 155, 105730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105730

Battineni, G., Kumar, S., Mittal, M., & Amenta, F. (2021). COVID-19 vaccine on board ships: Current and future implications of seafarers. International Maritime Health, 72(1), 76–77. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2021.0010
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), International Labour Organization (ILO), International Maritime Organization, World Health Organization (WHO), & International Organization for Migration (IOM). (2021). Joint Statement on prioritization of COVID-19 vaccination for seafarers and aircrew. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/joint-statement-on-prioritization-of-covid-19-vaccination-for-seafarers-and-aircrew-25-march.pdf?sfvrsn=d94d8139_29
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2021). Coronavirus (COVID-19): Legal, liability and insurance issues arising from vaccination of seafarers. https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Coronavirus-COVID-19-Legal-Liability-and-Insurance-Issues-arising-from-Vaccination-of-Seafarers-Second-Edition.pdf
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2022). Coronavirus (COVID-19): Roadmap for vaccination of international seafarers. https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Coronavirus-COVID-19-Roadmap-for-Vaccination-of-International-Seafarers-Second-Edition.pdf
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2022). Coronavirus (COVID-19): Vaccination for seafarers and shipping companies: A practical guide. https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Coronavirus-COVID-19-Vaccination-for-Seafarers-and-Shipping-Companies-A-Practical-Guide-Third-Edition.pdf
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2020, December). UN General Assembly Resolution calls for seafarer key worker designation and implementation of crew change protocols; IMO Secretary-General urges priority vaccination. https://www.imo.org/en/mediacentre/pressbriefings/pages/44-seafarers-unga-resolution.aspx
International Maritime Organization (IMO), & International Labour Organization (ILO). (2021). Coronavirus (COVID-19) – Joint IMO/ILO statement on upholding medical assistance obligations to seafarers and accelerating seafarer vaccination programmes: Circular Letter No.4204/Add.42. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/PublishingImages/Pages/medicalassistance/Circular%20Letter%20No.4204-Add.42%20-%20Coronavirus%20(Covid-19)%20-%20Joint%20ImoIlo%20Statement%20On%20UpholdingMedical%20Assistance%20Obligations…%20(Secretariat).pdf
Lucas, D., Stannard, S., Shaw, N., Verbist, R., Walker, K., & Zuidema, J. (2024). Vaccinating international seafarers during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Lancet Global Health, 12(1), e166–e169. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(23)00486-2
Mungmunpuntipantip, R., & Wiwanitkit, V. (2021). COVID-19 vaccinations for seafarers on ocean-going vessels. International Maritime Health, 72(4), 304–304. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2021.0054
Puls, N. M., Oldenburg, B., Reck, C., Dengler, D., Belz, L., Scheit, L., Harth, V., & Oldenburg, M. (2025). Psychosocial burden, vaccination status and preventive information options for seafarers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 32682. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-20616-3
Schlaich, C. C., Lucas, K., Sydow, S., Beyer, E., & Faesecke, K. P. (2021). Procedural aspects of COVID-19 vaccinations for seafarers on ocean-going vessels. International Maritime Health, 72(3), 179–182. https://doi.org/10.5603/MH.2021.0034
Special Tripartite Committee of the Maritime Labour Convention. (2021). Resolution concerning COVID-19 vaccination for seafarers. International Labour Organization (ILO). https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@normes/documents/genericdocument/wcms_782880.pdf
Taylor, T. L., Maguire, D., & Johansson, M. (2022). Implementation of an onboard COVID-19 vaccination programme: A university partnership to vaccinate seafarers. International Maritime Health, 73(2), 59–63. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2022.0009

Maritime Operations and Impacts

Bailey, R., Borovnik, M., & Bedford, C. (2021, June 3). Stranded seafarers: An unfolding humanitarian crisis. The Development Policy Centre Blog. https://devpolicy.org/seafarers-in-a-covid-world-20210603/
Banta, V., & Pratt, G. (2023). Immobilised by the pandemic: Filipino domestic workers and seafarers in the time of COVID‐19. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 48(3), 556–570. https://doi.org/10.1111/tran.12598
Borovnik, M. (2024). Trapped in the COVID-19 pandemic: Seafarers and the global crew change crisis. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 33(1), 93–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/01171968241253850
Borovnik, M., Bedford, C., & Bailey, R. (2021, December 22). Has COVID-19 ended seafaring for Kiribati? The Development Policy Centre Blog. https://devpolicy.org/has-covid-19-ended-seafaring-for-kiribati-20211222/
Cook Islands, Malaysia, Norway, Philippines, Switzerland, United Arab Emirates, United States, International Chamber of Shipping (ICS), INTERCARGO, & WSC. (2020). Recommended framework of protocols for ensuring safe ship crew changes and travel during the COVID-19 pandemic [MSC 102/22/8]. https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/MSC-102-22-8-Recommended-framework-of-protocols-for-ensuring-safe-ship-crew-changes-and-travelduring-th…-Cook-Islands-Malaysia-N….pdf
De Beukelaer, C. (2021a). COVID-19 at sea: ‘The world as you know it no longer exists.’ Cultural Studies, 35(2–3), 572–584. https://doi.org/10.1080/09502386.2021.1898020
De Beukelaer, C. (2021b). COVID-19 border closures cause humanitarian crew change crisis at sea. Marine Policy, 132, 104661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104661
Global Maritime Forum. (2021). The Neptune Declaration on Seafarer Wellbeing and Crew Change. https://assets.ctfassets.net/gk3lrimlph5v/rRn5TQ1wSMWa2nfBf1fFs/003f5c0f5bb836fe9e117b3821668c77/The-Neptune-Declaration-on-Seafarer-Wellbeing-and-Crew-Change.pdf
Global Maritime Forum. (2022). The Neptune Declaration: Crew change indicator (February 2022). https://safety4sea.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Global-Maritime-Forum-Crew-Change-Indicator-Third-Quarter-2022_10.pdf
Global Maritime Forum. (2023). The Neptune Declaration: Crew change indicator (First Quarter 2023). https://safety4sea.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/GMF-The-Neptune-Declaration-Crew-Change-Indicator-First-Quarter-2023_04.pdf
Global Maritime Forum. (2024). Neptune Principles. https://globalmaritimeforum.org/neptune-principles/
Guo, Y., Yan, R., Wu, Y., & Wang, H. (2022). Ports opening for seafarer change during the COVID-19: Models and applications. Sustainability, 14(5), 2908. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14052908
Guo, Y., Yan, R., Wu, Y., & Wang, S. (2021). Modeling seafarer change at seaports in COVID-19. In X. Qu, L. Zhen, R. J. Howlett, & L. C. Jain (Eds.), Smart transportation systems 2021 (Vol. 231, pp. 115–122). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2324-0_12
Gutsuliak, V. N. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 on the freedom of the merchant ship’s access to foreign ports. Pomorstvo, 35(1), 23–29. https://doi.org/10.31217/p.35.1.3
Han, W., Chen, J., Wei, K., Shi, J., & Jia, G. (2023). International crew changes amid global pandemic outbreaks: Key issues and system innovations. Marine Policy, 147, 105342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105342
Hebbar, A. A., & Mukesh, N. (2020). COVID-19 and seafarers’ rights to shore leave, repatriation and medical assistance: A pilot study. International Maritime Health, 71(4), 217–228. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2020.0040
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2020, April 15). IATA and ICS: Governments must facilitate ship crew changes. https://www.ics-shipping.org/press-release/iata-and-ics-governments-must-facilitate-ship-crew-changes/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic: The crew change crisis. https://www.ics-shipping.org/current-issue/the-covid-19-pandemic-the-crew-change-crisis/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2021, March 19). Concerns of rise in seafarers impacted by crew change crisis due to new COVID-variants. https://www.ics-shipping.org/press-release/concerns-of-rise-in-number-of-seafarers-impacted-by-crew-change-due-to-new-covid-variants/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2022). Coronavirus (COVID-19): Seafarer shore leave principles. https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Coronavirus-COVID-19-Seafarer-Shoreleave-Principles-Second-Edition.pdf
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2022, May 10). International coalition completes repatriation of over 600 i-Kiribati seafarers trapped for nearly two years due to the COVID pandemic. https://www.ics-shipping.org/press-release/international-coalition-completes-repatriation-of-over-600-i-kiribati-seafarers-trapped-for-nearly-two-years-due-to-the-covid-pandemic/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS), & International Air Transport Association (IATA). (2020). Joint ICS and IATA statement on the importance of facilitating crew changes (C/ES.32/4/2). https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/joint-ics-and-iata-statement-on-the-importance-of-facilitating-crew-changes.pdf
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS), & ITUC CSI IGB. (2020, May 21). Joint ICS and ITF and ITUC letter to UN on crew changes [Letter]. https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/covid-192075-annex-b-joint-ics-and-itf-and-ituc-letter-to-un-on-crew-changes.pdf
International Labour Organization (ILO), International Maritime Organization, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), & World Health Organization (WHO). (2022). Joint Statement urging continued collaboration to address the crew change crisis, safeguard health and safety, and avoid supply chain disruptions during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/Documents/Joint%20statement%20UN%20agencies%20on%20crewing%20crisis%202022.pdf
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2020). Coronavirus (COVID-19) – Outcome of the International Maritime Virtual Summit on crew changes organized by the United Kingdom: Circular Letter No.4204/Add.24. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Documents/COVID%20CL%204204%20adds/Circular%20Letter%20No.4204-Add.24%20-%20Coronavirus%20(Covid-19)%20-%20Outcome%20Of%20The%20International%20MaritimeVirtual%20Summit%20On%20Crew%20Change.pdf
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2020, September 25). 400,000 seafarers stuck at sea as crew change crisis deepens. https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/Pages/32-crew-change-UNGA.aspx
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2021). Industry recommended framework of protocols for ensuring safe ship crew changes and travel during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic: MSC.1/Circ.1636/Rev.1. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Documents/MSC%201636%20protocols/MSC.1-Circ.1636%20-%20Industry%20Recommended%20Framework%20Of%20Protocols%20For%20Ensuring%20Safe%20Ship%20Crew%20Changes%20And%20Travel.pdf
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2021, March 19). COVID-19 crew change crisis still a challenge—IMO Secretary-General. https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/pages/Crew-change-COVID-19.aspx
Liao, K. A. S. (2025). The grey window of temporary reintegration: The involuntary return and crisis-induced immobility of Filipino migrant workers. International Migration Review, 59(4), 2299–2322. https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183241255666
Luchenko, D., & Georgiievskyi, I. (2021). Administrative restrictions in ports: Practice of crew rotations during COVID-19 pandemic. Lex Portus, 7(3), 7–31. https://doi.org/10.26886/2524-101X.7.3.2021.1
McDonald, T. (2020, October 30). Covid: The 400,000 seafarers who can’t go home. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-54549612
Nguyen, L. C., Dinh, G. H., Tran, D. L. A., Truong, H. Q., Duong, A. T. B., & Pham, H. T. (2024). Perceived concerns, impacts, and adaptations of Vietnamese seafarers during the crew change crisis amid the COVID-19 pandemic. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 23(1), 49–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-023-00324-3
Premti, A., & Asariotis, R. (2021, March 2). Facilitating crew changes and repatriation of seafarers during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. UN Trade & Development. https://unctad.org/news/facilitating-crew-changes-and-repatriation-seafarers-during-covid-19-pandemic-and-beyond
Shan, D., Ochs, C., Rajagopal, S., Rojas Aldieri, H. A., & Zhang, P. (2024). Precariousness and vulnerability: Seafarers in the COVID-19 pandemic. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 33(1), 42–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/01171968241245731
United Nations Global Compact, United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, International Labour Organization (ILO), & International Maritime Organization. (2021). Maritime human rights risks and the COVID-19 crew change crisis: A tool to support human rights due diligence. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/Documents/Maritime%20Human%20Rights%20Risks%20and%20the%20COVID-19%20Crew%20Change%20Crisis%2020210425.pdf
Vandergeest, P., Marschke, M., & MacDonnell, M. (2021). Seafarers in fishing: A year into the COVID-19 pandemic. Marine Policy, 134, 104796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104796

Alamoush, A. S., Ballini, F., & Ölçer, A. I. (2021). Ports, maritime transport, and industry: The immediate impact of COVID-19 and the way forward. Maritime Technology and Research, 4(1), 250092. https://doi.org/10.33175/mtr.2022.250092
Carballo Piñeiro, L., Mejia, M. Q., & Ballini, F. (2021). Beyond COVID-19: The future of maritime transport. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 20(2), 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-021-00243-1
Chen, Q., Pang, A., & Pang, D. (2021, October 26). Fast recovery or stagnation? The maritime industry post COVID-19. Proceedings of the International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. https://aga21.aast.edu/templates/frontend/aga21/ltr/templates/AGA21-Conference-Proceedings.pdf
Chua, J. Y., Foo, R., Tan, K. H., & Yuen, K. F. (2022). Maritime resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic: Impacts and solutions. Continuity & Resilience Review, 4(1), 124–143. https://doi.org/10.1108/CRR-09-2021-0031
EMSA. (2021). EMSA: Overview of COVID-19 impact on shipping industry. European Maritime Safety Agency. https://www.isesassociation.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/COVID-19-impact-on-shipping-12-February-2021.pdf
Gutsuliak, V. N. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 on the freedom of the merchant ship’s access to foreign ports. Pomorstvo, 35(1), 23–29. https://doi.org/10.31217/p.35.1.3
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2020, May 21). New ICS research a ‘ray of light’ amongst the COVID-19 clouds. https://www.ics-shipping.org/news-item/new-ics-research-a-ray-of-light-amongst-the-covid-19-clouds/
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2022, April). The perfect storm: The impact of COVID-19 on shipping, seafarers and maritime labour markets. https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Faith-and-Burial-for-Seafarers.pdf
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2022, January 31). Drop-off in labour standards reporting mars strong overall performance from Flag States, ICS assessment shows. https://www.ics-shipping.org/press-release/drop-off-in-labour-standards-reporting-mars-strong-overall-performance-from-flag-states-ics-assessment-shows/
Jensen, H. (2020, October). Remote crew management evolves in COVID era. Sea Technology, 61(10), 7. https://lsc-pagepro.mydigitalpublication.com/publication/?i=676581&p=6&view=issueViewer
Millefiori, L. M., Braca, P., Zissis, D., Spiliopoulos, G., Marano, S., Willett, P. K., & Carniel, S. (2021). COVID-19 impact on global maritime mobility. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 18039. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-97461-7
Nas, S. (2021). A brief critique of the year 2020 for the maritime industry. Journal of ETA Maritime Science, 9(1), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.4274/jems.2021.26566
Nguyen, L. C., Tran, D. L. A., Akbari, M., & Thai, V. V. (2025). Examining the typology of global pandemic impacts on maritime operations and management. Case Studies on Transport Policy, 22, 101580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cstp.2025.101580
Notteboom, T., & Pallis, T. (2020). IAPH-WPSP port economic impact barometer half year report: A survey-based analysis of the impact of COVID-19 on world ports in the period April to September 2020. IAPH; WPSP. https://sustainableworldports.org/wp-content/uploads/2020-09-16-COVID19-Barometer-Report.pdf
Schober, E. (2022). Working the supply chain. In S. Kasmir & L. Gill, The Routledge Handbook of the Anthropology of Labor (1st ed., pp. 191–200). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003158448-19
Sekar, M. (2021, October 26). A study on impact of international container vessels during and post pandemic. Proceedings of the International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. https://aga21.aast.edu/templates/frontend/aga21/ltr/templates/AGA21-Conference-Proceedings.pdf
Vanelslander, T. (2023). Short-run impacts of COVID-19 on the maritime and port sector: Measures and recommended policies. In Transportation Amid Pandemics (pp. 153–168). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-99770-6.00003-X
Wang, X., Liu, Z., Yan, R., Wang, H., & Zhang, M. (2022). Quantitative analysis of the impact of COVID-19 on ship visiting behaviors to ports- A framework and a case study. Ocean & Coastal Management, 230, 106377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2022.106377
Yan, R., Mo, H., Guo, X., Yang, Y., & Wang, S. (2022). Is port state control influenced by the COVID-19? Evidence from inspection data. Transport Policy, 123, 82–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2022.04.002
Yazir, D., Şahin, B., Yip, T. L., & Tseng, P.-H. (2020). Effects of COVID-19 on maritime industry: A review. International Maritime Health, 71(4), 253–264. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2020.0044

Acejo, I. L., & Abueg, L. C. (2022). Sailing through post-pandemic recovery? The role of the state for workers in cruise tourism industry in the Philippines. In P. Mohanty, A. Sharma, J. Kennell, & A. Hassan (Eds.), The Emerald handbook of destination recovery in tourism and hospitality (pp. 227–248). Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-80262-073-320221014
Berti, A. (2020, April 1). Timeline: Coronavirus sweeps the global shipping and cruise industries. Ship Technology. https://www.ship-technology.com/news/coronavirus-and-shipping-timeline/?cf-view
Bird, G. (2020). What is quarantine: Cruise ships, lepers and the temptation of Christ. TOPIA: Canadian Journal of Cultural Studies, 41, 40–60. https://doi.org/10.3138/topia-007
Brewster, R. K., Sundermann, A., & Boles, C. (2020). Lessons learned for COVID-19 in the cruise ship industry. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 36(9), 728–735. https://doi.org/10.1177/0748233720964631
Hu, Z., & Li, W. (2022). Global health governance on cruise tourism: A lesson learned from COVID-19. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9, 818140. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.818140
Klein, N. (2020). International law perspectives on cruise ships and Covid-19. Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies, 11(2), 282–294. https://doi.org/10.1163/18781527-bja10003
Kordsmeyer, A.-C., Mojtahedzadeh, N., Heidrich, J., Militzer, K., Von Münster, T., Belz, L., Jensen, H.-J., Bakir, S., Henning, E., Heuser, J., Klein, A., Sproessel, N., Ekkernkamp, A., Ehlers, L., De Boer, J., Kleine-Kampmann, S., Dirksen-Fischer, M., Plenge-Bönig, A., Harth, V., & Oldenburg, M. (2021). Systematic review on outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 on cruise, navy and cargo ships. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(10), 5195. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105195
Melikjanyan, K. (2021, October 26). Life after COVID-19. Cruise industry rising from the ashes. Proceedings of the International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. https://aga21.aast.edu/templates/frontend/aga21/ltr/templates/AGA21-Conference-Proceedings.pdf
Neumann, J. A., Zimmermann, J., Frese, M., Dirksen-Fischer, M., Kleine-Kampmann, S., Harth, V., & Heidrich, J. (2025). Infectious diseases on passenger ships: Port preparedness and response – A narrative systematic review. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease, 67, 102886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2025.102886
Yu, Y., Lorenc, M., & Shao, Y. (2022). Legal challenges in protecting the rights of cruise ship crew at the post COVID-19 pandemic era. Sustainability, 14(16), 9875. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14169875
Zhou, S., Han, L., Liu, P., & Zheng, Z.-J. (2020). Global health governance for travel health: Lessons learned from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreaks in large cruise ships. Global Health Journal, 4(4), 133–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.glohj.2020.11.006

Acejo, I. L., & Abueg, L. C. (2022). Sailing through post-pandemic recovery? The role of the state for workers in cruise tourism industry in the Philippines. In P. Mohanty, A. Sharma, J. Kennell, & A. Hassan (Eds.), The Emerald handbook of destination recovery in tourism and hospitality (pp. 227–248). Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-80262-073-320221014
APEC Transportation Working Group. (2024). Study on the maritime transport sector in the COVID-19 era: Challenges, opportunities, and way forward. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. https://www.apec.org/docs/default-source/publications/2024/6/224_tpt_study-on-the-maritime-transport-sector-in-the-covid-19-era.pdf
Arslan, O. (2022). The impact of COVID-19 on the sustainability of the maritime labour force. In B. Marco-Lajara, A. Coşkun Özer, & J. Martínez Falcó (Eds.), The transformation of global trade in a new world (pp. 158–179). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-5950-8.ch007
Asariotis, R. (2023, February 28). Review of maritime transport 2022: Navigating stormy waters. Seminar on the futures of maritime supply chains in Southeast Asia, Bangkok, Thailand. https://www.itd.or.th/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Ms.-Regina-Asariotis.pdf
Boga, S. (2025, April 16). Global seafarers achieve ‘landmark’ minimum wage increase. TradeWinds. https://www.tradewindsnews.com/ship-management/global-seafarers-achieve-landmark-minimum-wage-increase/2-1-1808508
Borovnik, M. (2022). Seafarers: The force that moves the global economy. In K. Peters, J. Anderson, A. Davies, & P. Steinberg, The Routledge Handbook of Ocean Space (1st ed., pp. 148–160). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315111643-15
Choi, J., Lim, S., & Lee, C. (2024). Comparative analysis of sustainable seafarers’ employment and welfare systems in South Korea and China: Contemporary issues and improvements. Sustainability, 16(19), 8512. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198512
Hu, M. (2020). Analysis of and countermeasure for the continual turnover of young senior seafarers during the COVID-19 epidemic from a HRM Perspective at a Chinese oceangoing shipping enterprise. Journal of Coastal Research, 108(sp1). https://doi.org/10.2112/JCR-SI108-064.1
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). (2022, September 1). Battling shipping’s brain drain amid the Great Resignation. https://www.ics-shipping.org/news-item/battling-shippings-brain-drain-amid-the-great-resignation/
International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF). (2023). Opportunities for seafarers and national maritime policies: Navigating beyond the chaos of the pandemic. https://www.itfglobal.org/en/resources/opportunities-seafarers-and-national-maritime-policies-navigating-beyond-chaos-pandemic
Nautilus International. (2026, February 24). Protecting maritime jobs and boosting national security. https://www.nautilusint.org/en/news-insight/telegraph/protecting-maritime-jobs-and-boosting-national-security/
Park, Y. A., Yip, T. L., Hu, S. R., & Park, H. G. (2023). Seafarer market structure analysis of Korean merchant shipping in COVID-19. The Asian Journal of Shipping and Logistics, 39(3), 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajsl.2023.06.003
Rio Tinto. (2025, May 29). Supporting seafarers at sea and on land. https://www.riotinto.com/en/news/stories/supporting-seafarers-at-sea-and-on-land
Tang, L. (2022). The impact of 2008 financial crisis and COVID-19 pandemic on the demand and supply of seafarer officers: Evidence from China. Marine Policy, 145, 105263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105263

Aleksanyan, A. K. (2021). Unmanned navigation system. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2061(1), 012119. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2061/1/012119
Dewan, M. H., Godina, R., Chowdhury, M. R. K., Noor, C. W. M., Wan Nik, W. M. N., & Man, M. (2023). Immersive and non-immersive simulators for the education and training in maritime domain—A review. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 11(1), 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11010147
Human Rights at Sea. (2021). Addressing the future of seafaring in Kiribati. https://www.humanrightsatsea.org/sites/default/files/media-files/2021-12/HRAS_Kiribati_Seafarer_Futures_Case_Study_September_2021-SP-LOCKED.pdf
International Chamber of Shipping & IAMU. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on maritime education and training [MSC 102/INF.25]. International Maritime Organization. https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/MSC-102-INF.25-The-impact-of-COVID-19-on-maritime-education-and-training-ICS-and-IAMU.pdf
Kataria, A., & Emad, G. R. (2022, October 21). Re-envisioning Maritime Education and Training—Technology facilitated lifelong learning for future ship operators. Proceedings of the International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. https://archive.iamu-edu.org/download/aga-22-proceedings/?wpdmdl=9155&ind=1667894869525&refresh=bed25f8d&filename=4_13-Re-envisioning-Maritime-Education-and-Training-%E2%80%93-Technology-facilitated-lifelong-learning-for-future-ship-operators.pdf
Kim, J., Lee, C., Jeong, M., Cho, E., & Lee, Y. (2023). Identifying optimal approaches for sustainable maritime education and training: Addressing technological, environmental, and epidemiological challenges. Sustainability, 15(10), 8092. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108092
Koivisto, H. (2023, October 19). On-line ERS. Proceedings of the International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. https://archive.iamu-edu.org/download/aga23_proceedings_each-abstract/?wpdmdl=9390&ind=1701827629244&refresh=c6f8db17&filename=2-6_On-line-ERS.pdf
Le Gac, J. M., & Texier, S. (2022). Training in the detection of psychological distress on board ships through health simulation during the COVID-19 epidemic. International Maritime Health, 73(2), 89–94. https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2022.0014
Thiruvasagam, G., & Vettriselvan, R. (2021, October 26). What is after COVID-19? Changing economies of the shipping industries and maritime education institutions. Proceedings of the International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. International Association of Maritime Universities Conference. https://aga21.aast.edu/templates/frontend/aga21/ltr/templates/AGA21-Conference-Proceedings.pdf
Türkistanli, T. T. (2024). Advanced learning methods in maritime education and training: A bibliometric analysis on the digitalization of education and modern trends. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 32(1), e22690. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22690

General Seafaring

Borovnik, M. (2005). Remittances: An informal but indispensible form of income for seafarer families in Kiribati (No. 8/2005; CIGAD Working Paper Series). Centre for Indigenous Governance and Development. https://natlib-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/f/1s57t7d/NLNZ_ALMA11270746650002836
Borovnik, M. (2004). Are seafarers migrants? ‐ Situating seafarers in the framework of mobility and transnationalism. New Zealand Geographer, 60(1), 36–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-7939.2004.tb01703.x
Borovnik, M. (2005). Seafarers’ “maritime culture” and the “i-Kiribati way of life”: The formation of flexible identities? Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 26(2), 132–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0129-7619.2005.00210.x
Borovnik, M. (2006). Working overseas: Seafarers’ remittances and their distribution in Kiribati. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 47(1), 151–161. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2006.00298.x
Borovnik, M. (2007). Labor circulation and changes among seafarers’ families and communities in Kiribati. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 16(2), 225–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/011719680701600205
Borovnik, M. (2011). Occupational health and safety of merchant seafarers from Kiribati and Tuvalu. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 52(3), 333–346. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2011.01459.x
Borovnik, M. (2012). The mobilities, immobilities and moorings of work-life on cargo ships. Sites: A Journal of Social Anthropology and Cultural Studies, 9(1), 59–82. https://doi.org/10.11157/sites-vol9iss1id194
Borovnik, M. (2017). Nighttime navigating: Moving a container ship through darkness. Transfers, 7(3), 38–55. https://doi.org/10.3167/TRANS.2017.070305
Borovnik, M. (2018). Seafarers and work: Endless, sleepless, floating journeys: The sea as workplace. In M. Brown & K. Peters (Eds.), Living with the sea: Knowledge, awareness and action (1st ed., pp. 166–185). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315161839
Borovnik, M. (2020). Seafarers and weather. In K. Barry, M. Borovnik, & T. Edensor (Eds.), Weather: Spaces, mobilities and affects (1st ed., pp. 131–149). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367808198
Borovnik, M. (2025). Borders and confinement in seafarers’ realities. In K. Peters & J. Turner (Eds.), Ocean governance (beyond) borders (pp. 223–249). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-71322-4_10
Borovnik, M., & Barry, K. (2020). Foggy landscapes. In K. Barry, M. Borovnik, & T. Edensor (Eds.), Weather: Spaces, mobilities and affects (1st ed., pp. 207–221). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367808198
Campling, L., & Colás, A. (2018). Capitalism and the sea: Sovereignty, territory and appropriation in the global ocean. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 36(4), 776–794. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775817737319
Featherstone, D. (2025). 9. Maritime labour and contested spaces and agency: Seafarers’ and dockers’ struggles for decolonisation and democracy. In A. Herod (Ed.), Handbook of labour geography (pp. 176–189). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781785363405.00019
Markkula, J. (2011). ‘Any port in a storm’: Responding to crisis in the world of shipping: ‘ANY PORT IN A STORM.’ Social Anthropology, 19(3), 297–304. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8676.2011.00161.x
Markkula, J. (2021). Containing mobilities: Changing time and space of maritime labor. Focaal, 2021(89), 25–39. https://doi.org/10.3167/fcl.2021.890103
Markkula, J. (2021). ‘We move the world’: The mobile labor of Filipino seafarers. Mobilities, 16(2), 164–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450101.2021.1880129
Markkula, J. (2025). Siren call of the sea: Disenchantment and estrangement of seafarers. Cultural Studies, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/09502386.2025.2469638
Peters, K., & Turner, J. (Eds.). (2025). Ocean governance (beyond) borders. Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-71322-4
Warren, A., & Gibson, C. (2025). Maritime port geographies: Materiality, labour, and statecraft in global crisis context. Geography Compass, 19(6), e70038. https://doi.org/10.1111/gec3.70038

Any suggestions?

If you have any resources or publications you’d like to suggest adding to this page, please let us know:

M.Borovnik@massey.ac.nz

Navigating Seafarer Mobilities

Research navigating the labour mobilities of seafarers during and after the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 Crisis

Resources: Seafaring and COVID-19

COVID-19 Review Articles+

International Responses, Guidelines, and Regulations

Key Worker Status+

Maritime Labour Convention (MLC), 2006+

General Responses and Resources+

Examples of Regional / National Responses+

Seafarers’ Health and Wellbeing

Health Guidelines and Interventions+

Human Rights+

Wellbeing, Welfare, and Mental Health+

COVID-19 Vaccination+

Maritime Operations and Impacts

Crew Changes and Shore Leave+

General Operations and Industry Impacts+

Cruise and Passenger Vessels+

Employment and Labour Market+

Maritime Training and Education+

General Seafaring

Other Seafaring Literature+

Any suggestions?